Stable Blue Phosphorescent Organic Light Emitting Devices

ABSTRACT

Novel combination of materials and device architectures for organic light emitting devices is provided. An organic light emitting device, is provided, having an anode, a cathode, and an emissive layer disposed between the anode and the cathode. The emissive layer includes a host and a phosphorescent emissive dopant having a peak emissive wavelength less than 500 nm, and a radiative phosphorescent lifetime less than 1 microsecond. Preferably, the phosphorescent emissive dopant includes a ligand having a carbazole group.

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 60/986,804 filed Nov. 9, 2007, the disclosures of which are hereinexpressly incorporated by reference in their entirety.

The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and theright in limited circumstances to require that the patent owner tolicense others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms ofF017391 awarded by Department of Energy.

The claimed invention was made by, on behalf of, and/or in connectionwith one or more of the following parties to a joint universitycorporation research agreement; Regents of the University of Michigan,Princeton University, The University of Southern California, and the toUniversal Display Corporation. The agreement was in effect on and beforethe date the claimed invention was made, and the claimed invention wasmade as a result of activities undertaken within the scope of theagreement.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

The invention relates generally relates to organic light emittingdevices (OLEDs). More specifically, the invention is directed to OLEDshaving long lifetimes, including blue devices.

2. Related Art

Opto-electronic devices that make use of organic materials are becomingincreasingly desirable for a number of reasons. Many of the materialsused to make such devices are relatively inexpensive, so organicopto-electronic devices have the potential for cost advantages overinorganic devices. In addition, the inherent properties of organicmaterials, such as their flexibility, may make them well suited forparticular applications such as fabrication on a flexible substrate.Examples of organic opto-electronic devices include organic lightemitting devices (OLEDs), organic phototransistors, organic photovoltaiccells, and organic photodetectors. For OLEDs, the organic materials mayhave performance advantages over conventional materials. For example,the wavelength at which an organic emissive layer emits light maygenerally be readily tuned with appropriate dopants.

OLEDs make use of thin organic films that emit light when voltage isapplied across the device. OLEDs are becoming an increasinglyinteresting technology for use in applications such as flat paneldisplays, illumination, and backlighting. Several OILED materials andconfigurations are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,844,363, 6,303,238, and5,707,745, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

One application for phosphorescent emissive molecules is a full colordisplay. Industry standards for such a display call for pixels adaptedto emit particular colors, referred to as “saturated” colors. Inparticular, these standards call for saturated red, green, and bluepixels. Color may be measured using CIE coordinates, which are wellknown to the art.

One example of a green emissive molecule is tris(2-phenylpyridine)iridium, denoted Ir(ppy)₃, which has the structure of Formula I:

In this, and later figures herein, the dative bond from nitrogen tometal (here, Ir) as a straight line is depicted.

The limited operational stability of organic light emitting devices(OLEDs), however, presents a challenge to their wide-spread acceptancefor use in large-area displays and solid-state lighting. While improvedpackaging techniques and material purity have lead to significantprogress in eliminating extrinsic sources of degradation, the remainingintrinsic luminance loss and voltage rise accompanying long term deviceoperation are not yet well understood.

Various hypotheses have been offered to explain the basis for intrinsicdegradation in device efficiency, with the most widely acceptedadvocating chemical degradation of a fraction of the emissiveconstituent molecules. Presumably, bond cleavage produces radicalfragments, which then participate in further radical addition reactionsto form even more degradation products. These products act asnon-radiative recombination centers, luminescence quenchers, and deepcharge traps. For example, several studies have shown that both anionsand cations of tris(8-hydroxyquinoline) aluminum (Alq₃) are unstable,and evidence has recently been presented that the excited statesthemselves may form reaction centers in the case of the common hostmaterial 4,4′-bis(9-carbazolyl)-2,2′-biphenyl (CBP),

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Novel combination of materials and device architectures for organiclight emitting devices is provided. An organic light emitting device, isprovided, having an anode, a cathode, and an emissive layer disposedbetween the anode and the cathode. The emissive layer includes a hostand a phosphorescent emissive dopant having a peak emissive wavelengthless than 500 nm, and a radiative phosphorescent lifetime less than 1microsecond, Preferably, the phosphorescent emissive dopant includes aligand having a carbazole group.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows an organic light emitting device having separate electrontransport, hole transport, and emissive layers, as well as other layers,

FIG. 2 shows an inverted organic light emitting device that does nothave a separate electron transport layer.

FIG. 3 provides a schematic of the model geometry and assumed energylevel relationships. The recombination zone decays exponentially fromthe EML/ETL interface at x₁ with characteristic length, d_(rec). Bothphosphorescent guests and defects form deep traps within the hostband-gap. The electron and hole quasi-Fermi levels under forward-biasare E_(Fn) and E_(Fv), respectively.

FIGS. 4A-4B: FIG. 4A shows the J-V characteristics of the devicesstudied. Inset: schematic of the device structure, with the dimensions,x₁-x₃ of FIG. 3, indicated as shown. FIG. 4B shows the external quantumefficiency (left scale) and emission spectrum (right scale) obtained atJ=10 mA/cm².

FIGS. 5A-5C: FIG. 5A shows the luminance degradation versus time forinitial brightnesses of L₀=1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 cd/m² as indicatedby the arrow. Solid black lines indicate a fit using the excitonlocalization degradation model discussed in the text. Note that therecombination zone width, d_(rec), is variable in these fits. The dataare reproduced for comparison with the exciton-exciton degradation modelin FIG. 58 and with the exciton-polaron model in FIG. 5C. All fittingparameters are given, in Table 1.

FIGS. 6A-6C: FIG. 6A shows the voltage rise for each of the four devicesstudied. The black lines are calculated using the exciton localizationmodel. The data are reproduced in FIG. 6B and FIG. 6C for comparisonwith fits from the exciton-exciton and exciton-polaron modelsrespectively. All fitting parameters are given in Table 1.

FIGS. 7A-7C: FIG. 7A shows the photoluminescence transients obtained foran as-grown device, one aged to L(t′) 0.59 L_(o) (L₀=1000 cd/m²), andanother aged to L(t′)=0.16 L_(o) of its initial L₀=3000 cd/m²brightness. Solid black lines are fits from the exciton localizationmodel. Predictions of the exciton-exciton annihilation model are shownin FIG. 7B and those for the exciton-polaron annihilation model in FIG.7C. Fitting parameters are given in Table 1.

FIGS. 8A-8C is a configurational diagram showing the differentdissociation is mechanisms in terms of energy (E) and representativecoordinate (r). In FIG. 8A, a direct or pre-dissociative potential, R,crosses the singlet or triplet first excited state energy surface. FIG.8B shows the exciton-exciton annihilation process, which leads to aground (S₀) and upper excited state (S*_(n) or T*_(n)) according to thereaction S₁(T₁)+S₁(T₁)→S₀+S*_(n)(T*_(n)), Direct or pre-dissociation mayoccur from the upper excited state (gray arrow, route 1), or it mayrelax vibronically and undergo hot-molecule dissociation (gray arrow,route 2) as discussed in the specification. FIG. 8C shows theexciton-polaron mechanism, in which energy transfer from the excitonresults in an excited polaron that dissociates along the analogousdirect/pre-dissociative and hot-molecule routes. Dotted lines indicatevibrational energy levels within each anharmonic electronic manifold.

FIGS. 9A-9B: FIG. 9A shows the average defect density, Q_(AVG)(t′) andFIG. 9B shows the average defect formation rate, F_(X)(t′), per exciton,per hour, as defined in the text. The curves are calculated using theexciton-polaron model, at initial luminances of L₀=1000, 2000, 3000, and4000 cd/m² as indicated by the arrow.

FIGS. 10A-10B: FIG. 10A shows the predicted lifetime improvement atL₀=1000 cd/m², obtained by increasing the recombination zone width,d_(rec). FIG. 10B shows the increase in lifetime calculated for areduction in degradation coefficient, K_(X). Both FIGS. 10A and 10Bassume the exciton-polaron model; the filled circles indicate where thedevices of this study lie on the curves.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions

As used herein, the term “organic” includes polymeric, materials as wellas small molecule organic materials that may be used to fabricateorganic opto-electronic devices. “Small molecule” refers to any organicmaterial that is not a polymer, and “small molecules” may actually bequite large. Small molecules may include repeat units in somecircumstances. For example, using a long chain alkyl group as asubstituent does not remove a molecule from the “small molecule” class.Small molecules may also be incorporated into polymers, for example as apendent group on a polymer backbone or as a part of the backbone. Smallmolecules may also serve as the core moiety of a dendrimer, whichconsists of a series of chemical shells built on the core moiety. Thecore moiety of a dendrimer may be a fluorescent or phosphorescent smallmolecule emitter. A dendrimer may be a “small molecule,” and it isbelieved that all dendrimers currently used in the field of OLEDs aresmall molecules.

As used herein, “top” means furthest away from the substrate, while“bottom” means closest to the substrate. Where a first layer isdescribed as “disposed over” a second layer, the first layer is disposedfurther away from substrate. There may be other layers between the firstand second layer, unless it is specified that the first layer is “incontact with” the second layer. For example, a cathode may be describedas “disposed over” an anode, even though there are various organiclayers in between.

As used herein, “solution processible” means capable of being dissolved,dispersed, or transported in and/or deposited from a liquid medium,either in solution or suspension form.

A ligand is referred to as “photoactive” when it is believed that theligand contributes to the photoactive properties of an emissivematerial.

The terms halo, halogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, arylkyl,heterocyclic group, aryl, aromatic group, and heteroaryl are known tothe art, and are defined in U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,704 at cols. 31-32,which are incorporated herein by reference.

More details on OLEDs, and the definitions described above, can be foundin U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,704, which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety.

Generally, an OLED may include at least one organic layer disposedbetween and electrically connected to an anode and a cathode. When acurrent is applied, the anode may inject holes and the cathode injectselectrons into the organic layer(s). The injected holes and electronseach migrate toward the oppositely charged electrode. When an electronand hole localize on the same molecule, an “exciton,” which is alocalized electron-hole pair having an excited energy state, may beformed. Light may be emitted when the exciton relaxes via aphotoemissive mechanism. In some cases, the exciton may be localized onan excimer or an exciplex. Non-radiative mechanisms, such as thermalrelaxation, may also occur, but are generally considered undesirable.

Initially, OLEDs employed emissive molecules that emitted light fromtheir singlet states (“fluorescence”). See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No.4,769,292, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.Fluorescent emission generally occurs in a time frame of less than about10 nanoseconds. More recently, however, OLEDs having emissive materialsthat emit light from triplet states (“phosphorescence”) have beendemonstrated. See Baldo ET AL., “Highly Efficient PhosphorescentEmission from Organic Electroluminescent Devices,” NATURE, vol. 395,151-154, 1998; (“Baldo-I”) and Baldo ET AL., “Very high-efficiency greenorganic light-emitting devices based on electrophosphorescence,” APPL.PHYS. LETT., vol. 75, No. 3, 4-6 (1999) (“Baldo-II”), which areincorporated by reference in their entireties. Phosphorescence isdescribed in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,704 at cols. 5-6, whichare incorporated by reference.

FIG. 1, which illustrates an embodiment, is a schematic showing anorganic light emitting device 100. Device 100 may include a substrate110, an anode 115, a hole injection layer 120, a hole transport layer125, an electron blocking layer 130, an emissive layer 135, a holeblocking layer 140, an electron transport layer 145, an electroninjection layer 150, a protective layer 155, and a cathode 160. Cathode160 may be a compound cathode having a first conductive layer 162 and asecond conductive layer 164. Device 100 may be fabricated by depositingthe layers described, in order. The properties and functions of thesevarious layers, as well as example materials, are described in moredetail in U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,704 at cols. 6-10, which are incorporatedby reference.

More examples for each of these layers are available. For example, aflexible and transparent substrate-anode combination is disclosed inU.S. Pat. No. 5,844,363, which is incorporated by reference in itsentirety. An example of a p-doped hole transport layer is m-MTDATA dopedwith F₄TCNQ at a molar ratio of about 50:1, as disclosed in U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. 2003/0230980, which is incorporated byreference in its entirety. Examples of emissive and host materials aredisclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,238, which is incorporated by referencein its entirety. An example of an n-doped electron transport layer isBPhen doped with Li at a molar ratio of about 1:1, as disclosed in U.S.Patent Application Publication No. 2003/0230980, which is incorporatedby reference in its entirety. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,703,436 and 5,707,745,which are incorporated by reference in their entireties, discloseexamples of cathodes including compound cathodes having a thin layer ofmetal such as Mg:Ag with an overlying transparent,electrically-conductive, sputter-deposited ITO layer. The theory and useof blocking layers is described in more detail in U.S. Pat. No.6,097,147 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20030230980, whichare incorporated by reference in their entireties. Examples of injectionlayers are provided in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.20040174116, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Adescription of protective layers may be found in U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. 20040174116, which is incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

FIG. 2, which illustrates another embodiment, shows an inverted OLED200. The device may include a substrate 210, a cathode 215, an emissivelayer 220, a hole transport layer 225, and an anode 230. Device 200 maybe fabricated by depositing the layers described, in order. Since themost common OLED configuration has a cathode disposed over the anode,and device 200 has cathode 215 disposed under anode 230, device 200 maybe referred to as an “inverted” OLED. Materials similar to thosedescribed with respect to device 100 may be used in the correspondinglayers of device 200. FIG. 2 provides one example of how some layers maybe omitted from the structure of device 100. The simple layeredstructure illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 is provided by way ofnon-limiting example, and it is understood that embodiments of theinvention may be used in connection with a wide variety of otherstructures. The specific materials and structures described areexemplary in nature, and other materials and structures may be used.Functional OLEDs may be achieved by combining the various layersdescribed in different ways, or layers may be omitted entirely, based ondesign, performance, and cost factors. Other layers not specificallydescribed may also be included. Materials other than those specificallydescribed may be used. Although many of the examples provided hereindescribe various layers as comprising a single material, it isunderstood that combinations of materials, such as a mixture of host anddopant, or more generally a mixture, may be used. Also, the layers mayhave various sublayers. The names given to the various layers herein arenot intended to be strictly limiting. For example, in device 200, holetransport layer 225 transports holes and injects holes into emissivelayer 220, and may be described as a hole transport layer or a holeinjection layer. In one embodiment, an OLED may be described as havingan “organic layer” disposed between a cathode and an anode. This organiclayer may comprise a single layer, or may further comprise multiplelayers of different organic materials as described, for example, withrespect to FIGS. 1 and 2.

In further embodiments, structures and materials not specificallydescribed herein may also be used, such as OLEDs comprised of polymericmaterials (PLEDs) such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,247,190, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety. By way of further example,OLEDs having a single organic layer may be used. OLEDs may be stacked,for example as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,745, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety. The OLED structure maydeviate from the simple layered structure illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2.For example, the substrate may include an angled reflective surface toimprove out-coupling, such as a mesa structure as described in U.S. Pat.No. 6,091,195, and/or a pit structure as described in U.S. Pat. No.5,834,893, which are incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Unless otherwise specified, any of the layers of the various embodimentsmay be deposited by any suitable method. For the organic layers,particular methods include thermal evaporation, ink-jet, such asdescribed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,013,982 and 6,087,196, which areincorporated by reference in their entireties, organic vapor phasedeposition (OVPD), such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,337,102, whichis incorporated by reference in its entirety, and deposition by organicvapor jet printing (OVJP), such as described in U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 10/233,470, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.Other suitable deposition methods include spin coating and othersolution based processes. Solution based processes may be carried out innitrogen or an inert atmosphere. For the other layers, particularmethods include thermal evaporation. Specific patterning methods includedeposition through a mask, cold welding such as described in U.S. Pat.Nos. 6,294,398 and 6,468,819, which are incorporated by reference intheir entireties, and patterning associated with some of the depositionmethods such as ink-jet and OVJD. Other methods, however, may also beused.

The materials to be deposited may be modified to make them compatiblewith a particular deposition method. For example, substituents such asalkyl and aryl groups, branched or unbranched, and preferably containingat least about 3 carbons, may be used in small molecules to enhancetheir ability to undergo solution processing. Substituents having about20 carbons or more may be used, and specifically in a range of about 3to about 20 carbons may be used. Materials with asymmetric structuresmay have better solution processibility than those having symmetricstructures, because asymmetric materials may have a lower tendency torecrystallize. Dendrimer substituents may be used to enhance the abilityof small molecules to undergo solution processing.

Devices fabricated in accordance with embodiments of the invention maybe incorporated into a wide variety of consumer products, including flatpanel displays, computer monitors, televisions, billboards, lights forinterior or exterior illumination and/or signaling, heads up displays,fully transparent displays, flexible displays, laser printers,telephones, cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptopcomputers, digital cameras, camcorders, viewfinders, micro-displays,vehicles, a large area wall, theater or stadium screen, or a sign.Various control mechanisms may be used to control devices fabricated inaccordance with the present invention, including passive matrix andactive matrix. Many of the devices are intended for use in a temperaturerange comfortable to humans, such as a temperature in a range of about18° C. to about 30° C., and more particularly at room temperature (about20° C. to about 25° C.).

The materials and structures described herein may have applications indevices other than OLEDs. For example, other optoelectronic devices suchas organic solar cells and organic photodetectors may employ thematerials and structures. More generally, organic devices, such asorganic transistors, may employ the materials and structures.

Attaining long blue device lifetimes with phosphorescent emitters hasbeen a long-standing problem in OLED device research. Suitable solutionsto this problem would be useful for efficient, long-lived displaydevices as well as new white lighting applications. Notwithstanding manyclaims to improved lifetime materials and devices, device half-livesgreater than about 2000 h starting from an initial luminance of about500 nits have not been previously reported for phosphorescent bluedevices with CIE color coordinates of X<0.17, Y<0.27. Accordingly, someaspects of the invention are generally directed to novel combination ofmaterials and/or device architectures, resulting in device half-livesgreater than about 10,000 h at CIE coordinates 0.16, 0.26.

The modeling described herein provides a good match with experimentaldata. The model is based on bimolecular processes, such asexciton-exciton and exciton-polaron interaction, as a failure mechanismthat create non-emissive reaction products. The model shows thatundesirable exciton-polaron interaction are a strong function of bothexciton energy and exciton lifetime. At higher energies and higherlifetimes, more undesirable interactions occur. Thus, blue emitters arethe most problematic in the visible spectrum. One solution is to providea blue emitter having a low radiative lifetime, i.e., a high radiativerate. As used herein, the “radiative lifetime” of a molecule is amaterial property that is a measure of the lifetime of an exciton on themolecule in the absence of any factors that might cause a non-radiativedecay. The lifetime of an exciton in an actual device may be shorterthan the radiative lifetime due to a variety of factors. Based on themodeling, the use of a blue phosphorescent emitter having a radiativelifetime less than 1 microsecond, corresponding to a radiative rate of10⁶ per second, would lead to long-lived devices. Green and red devicescan be long-lived with longer radiative lifetimes than blue, because theenergy of the excitons is lower in the green and red devices.

Incorporating carbazole groups in place of phenyl may lower the lifetimeof green emitting phosphorescent materials, without significantlyaltering color. This has been demonstrated for the following greenemitting compounds:

See, Huang et. al, Highly Phosphorescent Bis-Cyclometalated IridiumComplexes Containing Bercolmidazole-Based Ligands, Chem. Mater. 2004,16, 2480-2488. Specifically, the structures of Compounds 1 and 2 aboveare described in Huang at Chart 1, and the radiative lifetimes areprovided in Table 1.

See, Wong et. al, Multifunctional Iridium Complexes Based on CarbazoleModules as Highly Efficient Electrophosphors, Angewwandte ChemieInternational Ed. 2006, 45, 7800-7803. Specifically, Wong at page 2shows a triplet radiative lifetime Compound 3 above of 1.07microseconds, and indicates that the triplet radiative lifetime ofCompound 3 is shorter than that of Ir(ppy)₃.

Applying a similar change to a blue emitter is expected to result in asimilar decrease in radiative lifetime without significantly shiftingcolor. Thus, blue phosphorescent emitters having short radiativelifetimes may be achieved by incorporating carbazoles into the imidazolecontaining blue dopants that are currently the best candidates for blue,i.e., by replacing phenyl-imidazolyl ligand with carbazolyl-imidazoleligands. Examples of such molecules include the following structures,possibly with ligands in addition to those illustrated:

where R₁-R₄ are independently selected from the group consisting of H,aryl and alkyl, where the aryl and alkyl may be further substituted, andwhere Ar is an aryl that may be further substituted. M is a metal havingan atomic weight greater than 40. Preferably, M is iridium. Asillustrated, the molecules show a single bidentate ligand coordinated tothe metal M. Preferred molecules include any of the ligands illustratedcoordinated to a metal. Where M has additional coordination sites,additional ligands may be coordinated to the metal. In a preferred groupof molecules, M is iridium, which has 6 coordination sites (sufficientfor 3 bidentate ligands), and all three ligands are the same.

In one aspect, the following ligands are coordinated to a metal to forma phosphorescent emissive molecule, which is incorporated into theemissive layer of an OLED:

R₁-R₄ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, aryland alkyl, where the aryl and alkyl may be further substituted, andwhere Ar is an aryl that may be further substituted. The ligands may becoordinated to a metal M having an atomic weight greater than 40.Preferably, M is iridium. A molecule may include a plurality of the sameligand from the group above coordinated to a metal. For example, threeidentical ligands may be coordinated to an iridium atom. Differentligands may also be coordinated to the metal, so long as at least one ofthe ligands is selected from the group above.

It is also expected that rigid molecules have shorter lifetimes. Therigidity prevent the structure form “relaxing” in the excited state.

The model also shows that undesirable bimolecular interactions are alsoa function of exciton concentration. Reducing exciton concentration cantherefore lead to longer lived devices. Exciton concentration can bereduced by spreading out the recombination zone. Such spreading can beachieved by several methods, including balancing the flow of chargecarriers into the recombination zone, graded dopant concentrations, andusing an emissive region including multiple slabs of material doped withemitter alternating with undoped regions.

Undesirable bimolecular interactions are also a function of the distancebetween an exciton on an emitter molecule, and any excitons or polaronson adjacent molecules. At larger distances, the rate of interactionbetween excitons and/or polarons is decreased. Introducing steric, bulkyspacer groups onto the emitter molecule peripheries increases thedistance between the exciton, localized on the emitter molecule insidethe bulky spacer exterior, and excitons or polarons on surroundingmolecules. Preferably, the added steric bulk does not affect emitterground or excited states. Preferably, the size of a spacer group addedto an emissive molecule is at least 10 angstroms, preferably 15angstroms, and more preferably 20 angstroms. Spacer groups too large,above 50 angstroms, may have undesirable adverse effects on theconductivity of the emissive layer. It is desirable to design suchspacer groups to minimize overlaps between the pi orbitals of the hostand dopant. Aryl groups, alkanes, pyridines, azoles, and similarsubstituents are desirable. Dendrimers and alkane chains are alsodesirable. The use of such spacer groups is particularly desirable forphosphorescent emissive dopants having a peak emissive wavelength lessthan 500 nm.

The rate of undesirable bimolecular interactions is dependent on theconcentration of excitons and polarons. Reducing these concentrations isone way to increase device lifetime. One way to reduce excitonconcentration is to deliberately provide quenchers in the device,particularly in the emissive layer. Such quenchers could be designed insuch a way that the quenching does not cause damage to the device. Suchan approach may trade efficiency for lifetime, because some of thedeliberately quenched excitons may have otherwise caused light emission.

Experimental and Modeling

According to one embodiment, the fundamental mechanisms leading todegradation during long term operation of a typical, blueelectrophosphorescent OLED are provided. The trends inelectrophosphorescence decay, voltage rise, and emissive layerphotoluminescence quenching associated with electrical aging may be bestfit to a model (infra) based on the assumption that defect sitesgenerated during operation act as exciton quenchers, deep charge traps,and nonradiative recombination centers. Defect generation due to excitonpolaron annihilation interactions between the dopant and host moleculesmay lead to model predictions in good agreement with the data. Moreover,a link between guest exciton energy and the annihilation induced defectformation rate may be suggested, with increasing guest emission energyleading to increased defect formation rates. Accordingly, the model mayprovide that the operational lifetime of blue OLEDs may be less thangreen and red due to the higher energy excitations of the former system.Finally, defect densities of about 10¹⁸ cm⁻³ may result in greater thanabout 50% degradation from initial luminance.

Depending on their energy levels, defects may act as luminescentquenchers, non-radiative recombination centers, and deep charge traps.Luminance loss may result from the first two, while voltage rise, whichhas been linked to the presence of fixed space charge in the emissiveregion, may result from filling of the deep traps. This is depictedschematically in FIG. 9 for a single, discrete, deep defect state atenergy, E_(t), that lies between the highest occupied (HOMO) and lowestunoccupied molecular orbitals (LUMO) of the host. The energetics of thephosphorescent guest are also shown in FIG. 3. Thus, both defect andguest form discrete, deep hole traps that allow for direct excitonformation, although recombination is only radiative on the guest.Luminescence quenching by defects may occur if there exists an allowedtransition resonant with that of the guest or host that enables Försteror Dexter energy transfer to occur.

Defects may be assumed to act only as hole traps, with E_(t)representing the defect HOMO. In general, however, defects may have boththeir HOMO and LUMO, or a singly occupied molecular orbital within thehost band gap, creating both electron and hole traps. In addition, thedefect state itself may not lead directly to a quenching transition, butwhen occupied with a trapped charge, the resulting polaron might becomea quenching center. The model presented below is general, however, andalthough it has been derived for the specific case shown in FIG. 3, itnevertheless remains applicable to these alternative scenarios, asdiscussed below.

According to one embodiment, a single recombination zone that may decayexponentially from one edge of the emissive layer (EML) withcharacteristic length d_(rec), is depicted in FIG. 3. High efficiencyelectrophosphorescent OLEDs may have a charge balance factor near unity,hence it is assumed that equal numbers of electrons and holes enter therecombination zone. Excitons formed on the host may then rapidlytransferred and localized on the phosphorescent guests as a result oftheir high doping concentration and host triplet energy. As a result,exciton diffusion out of the recombination zone may be negligible.

These considerations lead to rate equations for hole (p), electron (n),and exciton (N) densities in the recombination zone as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{{p\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}}{t} = {{\frac{J}{q\; {d_{rec}\left( {1 - {\exp \left( \frac{- \left( {x_{2} - x_{1}} \right)}{d_{rec}} \right)}} \right)}}{\exp \left( \frac{- \left( {x - x_{1}} \right)}{d_{rec}} \right)}} - {\gamma \; {n\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}{p\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}} - {\sigma \; {v_{th}\left\lbrack {f_{D}\left( E_{t} \right)} \right\rbrack}{Q\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}{p\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}}}} & \lbrack 1\rbrack \\{\frac{{n\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}}{t} = {{\frac{J}{q\; {d_{rec}\left( {1 - {\exp \left( \frac{- \left( {x_{2} - x_{1}} \right)}{d_{rec}} \right)}} \right)}}{\exp \left( \frac{- \left( {x - x_{1}} \right)}{d_{rec}} \right)}} - {\gamma \; {n\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}{p\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}} - {{\gamma_{2}\left\lbrack {1 - {f_{D}\left( E_{t} \right)}} \right\rbrack}{Q\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}{n\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}}}} & \lbrack 2\rbrack \\{\frac{{N\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}}{t} = {{\gamma \; {n\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}{p\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}} - {\left( {\frac{1}{\tau} - {K_{DR}{Q\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}}} \right){N\left( {x,t,t^{\prime}} \right)}}}} & \lbrack 3\rbrack\end{matrix}$

The electron, hole, and exciton densities may depend on the time scaleof is transport and energy level transitions, t (short), as well as onthat of degradation, t′ (long), due to formation of defects of densityQ(x,t′). The electron and hole densities may be functions of the currentdensity, J, the elementary charge q, and the device dimensions shown inFIG. 3. Excitons may be formed at the Langevin rate,γ=q(μ_(n)+μ_(p))/(∈∈₀), and decay with natural lifetime, τ. The hole andelectron mobilities in the doped emissive layer are μ_(p) and μ_(n),respectively, the relative dielectric constant of the emissive layer is∈≈3, and ∈₀ is the permittivity of free space.

In Equation (1), holes with thermal velocity, v_(th)˜10⁷ cm/s, trap atdefect sites of energy, E_(t), and cross section, σ. The Fermi factor,f_(D)(E_(t))=[exp (E_(t)−E_(Fv))+1]⁻¹, gives the probability that thehole trap is empty, where E_(fv) is the hole quasi-Fermi energy.Electrons in Equation (2) non-radiatively may recombine at a rateproportional to the trapped hole density, Q(x,t′)[1−f_(D)(E_(t))], andthe reduced Langevin coefficient, γ₂=q(μ_(n))/(∈∈₀), since trapped holesare assumed to be immobile. Quenching of excitons by defects isdescribed by the bimolecular rate coefficient, K_(DR), in Equation (3).Note that only the constant prefactors change if defects trap electrons,or both carrier types, instead of only holes, as considered above.

The defect generation mechanism has four possible routes:

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{{Q\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}}{t^{\prime}} = \left\{ \begin{matrix}{K_{X}{n\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}} & {K_{X}{p\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}} \\{K_{X}{N\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}} & \; \\{K_{X}{N^{2}\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}} & \; \\{{K_{X}{N\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}{n\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}},} & {K_{X}{N\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}{p\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}}\end{matrix} \right.} & \begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}\left\lbrack {4a} \right\rbrack \\\left\lbrack {4b} \right\rbrack\end{matrix} \\\left\lbrack {4c} \right\rbrack\end{matrix} \\\left\lbrack {4d} \right\rbrack\end{matrix}\end{matrix}$

where the rate constant, K_(X), is consistent in dimension with theorder of the reaction. In Equation (4a), the presence of an electron orhole (i.e. a polaron) leads to molecular degradation, while in Equation(4b) excitons are responsible. Defect formation is a product ofexciton-exciton annihilation in Equation (4c), and of exciton-polaron(hole or electron) annihilation in Equation (4d).

On the short time scale, t, Equations (1)-(3) are at steady state andmay be solved to yield an expression for N (x, t′). The resulting,coupled differential equations containing N(x,t′) and Q(x,t′) may thensolved numerically. Thus, the normalized OLED luminescence as a functionof time is:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{EL}_{norm}\left( t^{\prime} \right)} = \frac{{\int_{x_{1}}^{x_{2}}{N\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}}\ }{\int_{x_{1}}^{x_{2}}{N\left( {x,0} \right)}}},} & \lbrack 5\rbrack\end{matrix}$

and the defect formation rate per exciton, averaged over therecombination zone is:

$\begin{matrix}{{F_{x}\left( t^{\prime} \right)} = {\frac{1}{d_{rec}}{\int_{x_{1}}^{x_{2}}{\frac{1}{N\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}\frac{{Q\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}}{t^{\prime}}\ {{x}.}}}}} & \lbrack 6\rbrack\end{matrix}$

Here, the integration limits, x₁ and x₂, are defined in FIG. 3. Thedensity of trapped charge increases with defect density following:ρ_(T)(x,t′)=qQ(x,t′)[1−f_(D)(E_(t))]. Assuming that the growth of ρ_(T)is offset by an equal density of opposing charge at the cathode, andthat the free charge distributions under steady-state operation are notperturbed, then the voltage rise is given by:

ΔV(t′)≈∫₀ ^(x) ³ xρ _(T)(x,t′)dx.  [7]

The emissive layer photoluminescence (PL) transient will also beaffected by defects. From Equation (3) at time, t′, the PL intensitynormalized to that at t=0 is:

$\begin{matrix}{\left. {{PL}_{norm}(t)} \right|_{t^{\prime}} = {\frac{{\int_{x_{1}}^{x_{2}}{{I_{0}(x)}{\exp \left\lbrack {{- \left( {\frac{1}{\tau} + {K_{DR}{Q\left( {x,t^{\prime}} \right)}}} \right)}t} \right\rbrack}}}\ }{{\int_{x_{1}}^{x_{2}}{I_{0}(x)}}\ }.}} & \lbrack 8\rbrack\end{matrix}$

Here, I₀(x) is the intensity profile of the excitation pulse in thedevice emissive layer calculated by the transfer matrix method for thespecific device structure, incident excitation angle, wavelength, andpolarization considered.

EXAMPLES Specific Example 1

Indium-tin-oxide (ITO) coated glass was cleaned with solvents andpatterned into 2 mm² anode contact areas using standard photolithographytechniques prior to organic film deposition. The ITO was oxygen plasmacleaned, exposed to UV-ozone treatment, and then loaded into a vacuumchamber with a base pressure of about 10⁻⁷ Torr. The device structurewas as follows FIG. 4: a 10 nm thick hole injection layer 410, a 30 nmthick layer of the hole transporting4,4′-bis[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-phenyl-amino]-biphenyl (NPD) 412, a 30 nmthick emissive layer 414 including mCBP doped with about 9 wt % of theblue phosphorfac-tris[3-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-7-methylimidazo[1,2-f]phenanthridine]Iridium(III), and a 5 nm thick layer of mCBP 416 for exciton confinementwithin the EML. Electrons were injected into the EML through about a 40nm thick layer of tris-(8-hydroxyquinoline) aluminum 418, capped by acathode 420 including of about a 0.8 nm thick layer of LiF and about a100 nm thick Al film. Following deposition, the OLEDs were transferreddirectly from vacuum into an oxygen and moisture-free N, glove box, andwere subsequently encapsulated using a UV-curable epoxy, and a glass lidcontaining a moisture getter.

External quantum (EQE) and power efficiencies were calculated from thespectral intensity measured normal to the substrate using a SpectraScanPR705. The current and voltage measurements were obtained using aKeithley 236 source measurement unit. Operational lifetime measurementswere performed at room temperature, and devices were aged at variousconstant currents while monitoring their operational voltage and lightoutput. Photoluminescence transients were obtained periodically duringelectrical aging using a time-correlated single photon counting systemfrom Horiba Jobin Yvon, with a wavelength of about λ=335 nm, pulsedexcitation source incident at about 45° from normal, Photoluminescencefrom the emissive layer was obtained at a wavelength of about λ=470 nmto prevent collection of fluorescence from the transport layers.

The current density-voltage (J-V) characteristics and EQE for the OLEDswere plotted in FIGS. 4A and 48, respectively. The device showed a peakforward viewing EQE=(11.0±0.2) %. The emission spectrum at J=10 mA/cm²,with a peak at λ=464 nm, was due to the dopant and remained the same atall current densities, indicating that the recombination zone remainedwithin the EML. The recombination was highest at the EML interfaceadjacent to the thin mCBP blocking layer 416. This conclusion wassupported by the lack of NPD emission, and the fact that removal of themCBP blocking layer resulted in significant Ala emission.

FIG. 5A provided the normalized electrophosphorescence versus time forfour different drive current densities: about 6.9, about 15.1, about24.3 and about 34.4 mA/cm² corresponding to initial (t′=0) luminances ofL₀=about 1000, about 2000, about 3000, and about 4000 cd/m²,respectively. The operational lifetime, LT₈₀, corresponded to the timerequired for the luminance to degrade to 0.8L_(o). The rate of luminanceloss increased as monotonically with J; here lifetimes decreased fromabout 110 hrs at about 6.9 mA/cm², to about 9 hrs at about 34.4 mA/cm².The solid lines in FIG. 5A were derived from the model under theassumption that exciton localization on a dopant or host molecule led todefect formation (Equation 4b). The same experimental data werereproduced in FIGS. 5B and 5C to compare the model predictions forexciton-exciton annihilation (Equation 4c) and exciton-polaron(electron) annihilation (Equation 4d) defect formation processes,respectively.

The voltage rise corresponding to the luminance loss was plotted in eachof FIGS. 6A-6C for comparison with each different modeling scenario. Thesolid lines of FIGS. 6A-6C were calculated using the same excitonlocalization, exciton-exciton, and exciton-polaron degradation models asin FIGS. 5A-5C.

FIGS. 7A-7C showed PL transients obtained from an as-grown device, adevice degraded to a luminance at time t′ of L(t′)=0.59 L_(o)(L₀=1000cd/m²), and one degraded to L(t′)=0.16 L_(o) (L₀=3000 cd/m²). Thepredictions from each model were shown by solid lines in FIG. 7A(exciton localization), FIG. 7B (exciton-exciton annihilation), and FIG.7C (exciton-polaron annihilation). The as-grown device exhibited anatural decay lifetime of τ=(1.10±0.08) μs, while the degraded devicetransients became increasingly nonlinear, indicative of the existence ofquenching. Fluorescence from NPD overlapping the λ=470 nm detectionwavelength was responsible for the sharp decrease in intensity near t=0.The transients were normalized at the onset of phosphorescence, afterthe fluorescence had decayed to a negligible level (i.e., at about t>0.2μs).

Configurational diagrams of the defect generation mechanisms proposed inEquation (4), were shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 8A shows the excitonlocalization pathway, where a direct or pre-dissociative potential, R,crossed the exciton energy surface. In FIG. 8B, annihilation of twosinglet (S₁) or triplet (T₁) excitons yielded, a ground state (S₀), andan upper excited state (S*_(n) or T*_(n)), which were dissociated via adirect or pre-dissociative reaction (route 1) along R to yield radicalfragments that resulted in defect states. Dissociation also occurred viathe hot-molecule mechanism (route 2) if the upper excited state relaxedvibronically to create a hot first excited state. Similarly, FIG. 8Cshowed annihilation of an exciton (S₁ or T₁) and a polaron (D₀) tocreate a ground state (S₀) and an excited polaron (D*_(n)), whichdissociated along route 1 or 2, analogous to the previous case above.

To determine which of these processes were most active, the data inFIGS. 5-7 to the model discussed above. For each degradation model, asingle set of parameters was used to fit the luminance, voltage, and FLdata. The calculated luminance degradation slope following the ‘knee’(i.e., onset of downward slope) of each curve (FIG. 5) dependedprimarily on the degradation mode assumed, while only slightly on thechoice of parameter values, which determined the position of the ‘knee’in time, t′. Each set of parameters is provided in Table 1, below.

TABLE 1 Model Parameter Values Parameter Exciton Ex-Ex Ex-Pol Variabled_(rec) (nm) 12, 9, 7, 5, ±5 10 ± 3  8 ± 2 K_(DR) (cm³s⁻¹) (4 ± 3) ×10⁻¹²    (4 ± 3) × 10⁻¹² (5 ± 3) × 10⁻¹² K_(x) (s⁻¹ or cm³s⁻¹) (6 ± 3) ×10⁻⁶  (1.7 ± 0.9) × 10⁻²² (7 ± 2) × 10⁻²⁴ σ (cm²)     2 × 10⁻¹⁷      3 ×10⁻¹⁷ 10⁻¹⁷ E_(t) − E_(Fv) (eV) 0.21 ± 0.05 0.15 ± 0.04 0.17 ± 0.03Fixed, J (mA/cm²)  6.85 (L₀ = 1000 cd/m²), 15.12 (L₀ = 2000 cd/m²)Common 24.26 (L₀ = 3000 cd/m²), 34.36 (L₀ = 4000 cd/m²) τ (μs) 1.10 ±0.08 μ_(p) (cm²V⁻¹s⁻¹) 2 × 10⁻⁷ μ_(n) (cm²V⁻¹s⁻¹ 8 × 10⁻⁸ T (K) 295 x₁(nm)  40 x₂ (nm)  70 x₃ (nm) 115

The exciton-polaron model provided the best fit to the data, asdiscussed below. Electron and hole mobilities representative of thosefound for a similar CBP based host-guest combination were kept constantin all fits. In FIG. 5C, the model deviated slightly in advanced stagesof degradation (L(t′)<0.4L_(o)), where the data showed lower luminancethan predicted. This may result from a change in charge balance due tothe voltage rise FIG. 6. This resulted in higher polaron densities, andthus to an increased rate of degradation, providing a positive feedbacknot considered in the model.

Accordingly, each degradation mechanism was marked by its own, distinct,functional dependence. This was evident from approximate solution ofEquations (1)-(3) in the limit that Q(x,t′) is large (≧10¹⁷ cm⁻³). Useof Equation (4) yielded a polynomial of different order in Q(x,t′) foreach degradation mechanism: quadratic for single polaron localization(Equation (4a)), 4^(th) order for exciton localization (Equation (4b)),7^(th) order for exciton-exciton annihilation (Equation 4(c)), and5^(th) order for exciton-polaron annihilation (Equation 4(d)). Thedistinguishing feature of each degradation mode was thus the order ofthe polynomial used to fit the data, which led to theparameter-independent functional differences in the fits of FIG. 5.

The parameters in Table 1 were consistent with expectations for thisguest-host materials combination. For example, the values suggested thatdefect hole traps are nearly full, lying at about 0.1 eV above the holequasi-Fermi level. Characteristic recombination lengths were allconsistent with literature reported values of in the range of about 8 nmto about 12 nm. Also, the defect exciton quenching rate, K_(DR)˜4×10⁻¹²cm³s⁻¹, was similar to that reported for other bimolecular quenchingreactions in OLEDs. Low capture cross-sections of about σ=10¹⁷ cm⁻³resulted from localization of large effective mass holes that werecharacteristic of organic molecules.

The relative contributions to luminance loss from defect excitonquenching and non-radiative recombination were estimated to be about 70%and about 30% respectively. The existence of quenching was confirmed bythe PL data of FIG. 7, and non-radiative recombination is inferred fromthe presence of charged defects that led to the observed voltage rise.

The average defect density, Q_(AVG)(t′)=1/d_(rec)∫Q (x,t′)dx, wascalculated using the exciton-polaron model, is shown in 9A. The increasein defect density was linear for t<10 hrs, and rolls off at longertimes. From FIG. 5C and FIG. 9A, it was inferred that a defect densityof about 10¹⁸ cm⁻³, or about 0.1% of the molecular density leads togreater than about 50% loss in luminescence. The rates of defectformation, F_(X)(t′), corresponding to the densities in FIG. 9A, wereplotted in FIG. 9B. At about 1000 cd/m², F_(X)≈0.04, or about 1 defectper about 25 excitons was formed every hour.

The effects of exciton-polaron annihilation on device lifetime may bereduced by increasing d_(rec) and decreasing K_(X), as shown in FIGS. 9Aand 9B, respectively. These results were calculated for a device withL₀=1000 cd/m², maintaining all other parameters at the values inTable 1. The device lifetime more than doubled when recombination wasuniform across the EML (d_(rec)→∞), as compared to d_(rec)=8 nm foundfor the devices studied here. Further, for d_(rec)>30 nm, there waslittle improvement in LT₈₀. Since the voltage of an OLED was stronglydependent on layer thickness, about 30 nm was thus considered a nominalupper limit to the EML thickness in practical, efficient OLEDs. Also, inFIG. 15B, a 6-fold increase of LT₈₀ was calculated as K_(X) was reducedfrom about 7×10⁻²⁴ cm⁻³s⁻¹, to about 1×10⁻²⁴ cm⁻³s⁻¹.

As indicated in FIG. 8C, it was the excess energy gained by the polaronthat drove the exciton-polaron degradation mechanism. It enabled directand pre-dissociation reactions (route 1) if the repulsive potential, R,existed. However, due to the typically fast (ps) rates of vibronicrelaxation from upper excited states, the hot-molecule mechanism (route2) was perhaps even more important. In this case, vibrationaldissipation of the excess electronic energy (about 2.7 eV) led tocleavage of low energy molecular bonds.

Guest triplet excitons and host polarons were likely to be the dominantparticipants in the exciton-polaron defect formation reactions. Theguest exciton density was much higher than the density on the host,since lifetimes on the host were short (less than about ins) due torapid energy transfer to the guests, where they exist as triplets forabout 1 μs. Since both Förster and exchange exciton-polaron annihilationmechanisms were strongly distance dependent, the physical separation ofguests discouraged guest-guest annihilations. Accordingly, it wasinferred that energy exchanged by annihilation of the guest tripletexciton to the host polaron resulted in a dissociative process of thehost molecule itself. The fragments were in close proximity to the guestmolecule and thus quenched any subsequent triplets on that molecule,rendering it a permanent non-radiative center. Furthermore, as notedabove, the fragmented molecule also acted as a deep trapping center,resulting in the observed operating voltage rise.

It is apparent that the efficiency of hot-molecule dissociation mayincrease with the amount of energy transferred to the polaron. Sincethis energy was provided by the guest, this suggested that thedegradation rate (K_(x)) was a function of the guest exciton energy. Inthis case, red phosphorescent OLEDs would show the longest lifetimes,followed by green and then by blue devices. This has been observed inall OLED reliability studies to date in both polymer and small molecularweight systems, as well as for electrofluorscent andelectrophosphorescent guest-host materials combinations. For example,the longest reliability observed in the red, green and blue Ir-basedsmall molecule electrophosphorescent OLEDs were about 10⁶ hrs, 5×10⁴ hrsand about 2×10⁴ hrs, respectively. Although there were significantdifferences between the device structures and test conditions used ineach of these studies, the lifetime scaling was clearly apparent and wasconsistent with our energy-based model for device degradation.

Strategies for minimizing exciton-polaron annihilation involved loweringeither K_(x) or the densities of excitons and polarons. FIG. 10A showsthe results of lowering both exciton and polaron densities by expandingthe recombination zone. For example, control of electron and holemobilities in the EML as well as the strategic placement of energybarriers in the device may lead to a more uniform and distributedrecombination zone. Finally, engineering host and guest molecules tolower the annihilation probability may lead to increased lifetime (FIG.10B) as well as improved efficiency at high brightness. Due to thedistance dependence of annihilation processes, increasing theintermolecular separation through addition of steric bulk to guest andhost molecules may lead to decreased K_(x) and longer lifetimes,although this may also reduce the device efficiency by impeding excitonor charge transfer within the EML.

While the invention is described with respect to particular examples andspecific embodiments, it is understood that the present invention is notlimited to these examples and embodiments. For example, thephosphorescent materials may contain stereo and/or structural isomers.The invention as claimed therefore includes variations from theparticular examples and specific embodiments described herein, as willbe apparent to one of skill in the art.

What is claimed is:
 1. An organic light emitting device, comprising: ananode, a cathode, an emissive layer disposed between the anode and thecathode, the emissive, layer further comprising a host and aphosphorescent emissive dopant having a peak emissive wavelength lessthan 500 nm, and a radiative phosphorescent lifetime less than 1microsecond.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the phosphorescentemissive dopant includes a carbazole group.
 3. The device of claim 2,wherein the phosphorescent emissive dopant comprises a structureselected from the group consisting of:

where R₁-R₄ are independently selected from the group consisting of: H,aryl and alkyl, where the aryl and alkyl may be further substituted, Aris an aryl that may be further substituted, and M is a metal having anatomic weight greater than
 40. 4. The device of claim 3, wherein M isiridium.
 5. The device of claim 3, wherein additional ligands arecoordinated to the metal M.
 6. The device of claim 4, wherein threeidentical ligands are coordinated to the metal M.
 7. The device of claim1, wherein the device has a graded interface.
 8. An organic lightemitting device, comprising: an anode, a cathode, an emissive layerdisposed between the anode and the cathode, the emissive layer furthercomprising: an phosphorescent emissive dopant including a steric bulkyspacer group having a size of at least 10 angstroms.
 9. The device ofclaim 8, wherein the phosphorescent emissive dopant has a peak emissivewavelength less than 500 nm.
 10. The device of claim 8, wherein thesteric bulky spacer group is selected from the group consisting ofdendrimers and alkane chains.